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$Unique_ID{how04938}
$Pretitle{}
$Title{World Civilizations: Industrialization And Western Global Hegemony
Introduction}
$Subtitle{}
$Author{Stearns, Peter N.; Adas, Michael;Schwartz, Stuart B.}
$Affiliation{}
$Subject{european
overseas
expansion
europeans
industrial
sought
europe
era
peoples
}
$Date{1992}
$Log{}
Title: World Civilizations: Industrialization And Western Global Hegemony
Book: Chapter 30: Industrialization And Imperialism
Author: Stearns, Peter N.; Adas, Michael;Schwartz, Stuart B.
Date: 1992
Introduction
The Making Of The European Global Order
The process of industrialization that began to transform western European
societies in the last half of the 18th century fundamentally altered the
nature and impact of European overseas expansion. In the centuries of
expansion before the industrial era, the Europeans went overseas because they
sought material things they could not produce themselves and because they were
threatened by powerful external enemies. They initially sought precious metals
for which they traded in Africa and waged wars of conquest to control in the
Americas. In the Americas they also seized land on which they could grow
high-priced commercial crops such as sugar and coffee. In Asia, European
traders and adventurers sought either manufactured goods, such as cotton and
silk textiles (produced mainly in India, China, and the Middle East), or
luxury items, such as spices, that would improve the living standards of the
aristocracy and rising middle classes.
In the Americas, Africa, and Asia missionaries from Roman Catholic areas,
such as Spain and Portugal, sought to convert what were regarded as "heathen"
peoples to Christianity. Both the wealth gained from products brought home
from overseas and the souls won for Christ were viewed as ways of
strengthening Christian Europe in its long struggle with Muslim empires that
threatened Europe from the south and east. Only on the eve of Columbus's
voyage in 1492 were the Muslims driven from Spain into North Africa; and the
Ottoman Empire remained a formidable foe of the European powers throughout the
first two centuries of overseas expansion.
In the industrial era, from roughly 1800 onward, the things that
Europeans sought in the outside world as well as the source of the
insecurities that drove them there changed dramatically. Raw materials -
metals, vegetable oils, dyes, cotton, and hemp - needed to feed the machines
of Europe, not spices or manufactured goods, were the main products the
Europeans sought overseas. Industrialization made Europe for the first time
the manufacturing center of the world, and overseas markets for machine-made
European products became a key concern of those who pushed for colonial
expansion. Christian missionaries, by then as likely to be Protestant as Roman
Catholic, still sought to win converts overseas. But unlike the rulers of
Portugal and Spain in the early centuries of expansion, European leaders in
the industrial age rarely took initiatives overseas to promote Christian
proselytization. In part this reflected the fact that western Europe itself
was no longer seriously threatened by the Muslims or any other non-European
people. The fears that fueled European imperialist expansion in the industrial
age arose from internal rivalries between the European powers. Overseas
peoples might resist the European advance, but the Europeans feared each other
far more than even the largest non- European empires.
The contrast between European expansion in the preindustrial era and in
the age of industrialization was also reflected in the extent to which the
Europeans were able to sail to overseas areas, go ashore, and move inland. In
the early centuries of overseas expansion, European conquests were
concentrated in the Americas, whose long isolation left their peoples
particularly vulnerable to the technology and diseases of the expansive
Europeans (see Chapter 25). In much of the rest of the world (see Chapters 23,
26, and 28), European traders and conquistadores were confined largely to the
sea-lanes, islands, and coastal enclaves. Now, industrial technology and
techniques of organization and discipline associated with the increasing
mechanization of the West gave the Europeans the capacity to reach and
infiltrate any foreign land. From the populous, highly centralized, and
technologically sophisticated Chinese Empire to small bands of hunters and
gatherers struggling to survive in the harsh environment of Tierra del Fuego
on the southern coast of South America, few peoples were remote enough to be
out of reach of the steamships and railways that carried the Europeans to and
across all continents of the globe. No culture was strong enough to remain
untouched by the European drive for global dominance in this era, and none
could long resist the profound changes unleashed by European conquest and
colonization.
The shift from the preindustrial to the industrial phase of European
overseas expansion was gradual and cumulative, extending roughly from 1750 to
1850. By the middle decades of the 19th century, few who were attuned to
international events could doubt that a watershed had been crossed. The first
section of this chapter will explore the initial stages of this momentous
transformation. It will trace the advance of the Dutch inland on Java and the
rise in India of what can be seen as the first empire of the industrial era.
The middle sections of this chapter will be devoted to the forces in Europe
and the outside world that led to the great burst of imperialist expansion,
which was a dominant feature of global history in the last decades of the 19th
century. The final sections will explore the patterns of European conquest and
rule that persisted from earlier colonization efforts as well as the
innovations that were dictated by the ambitions and aspirations of the
European and American champions of the "new" imperialism. Special attention
will be given to some of the key consequences of European domination for the
societies and cultures of the colonized peoples of Africa and Asia.